Human Trafficking in the Caribbean

The law is not effective in dealing with the problem of human trafficking. Discuss (using relevant International and Domestic law). According to the Trafficking in Persons Protocol, Human Trafficking is the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by threatening or using force, or any other form of coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability; or giving or receiving payments or benefits to relieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.Human Trafficking is characterized by 1. The Act (What is done) 2. The Means (How it is done) 3. The Purpose (Why it is done) People may fall victim to Human Trafficking for many purposes. One common purpose is for prostitution. Sexual labour is identified as coerced labour. Other common purposes are for child labour and the sex trade. The Vatican has described Human Trafficking as being worse than slavery and has been describ ed as the â€Å"Silent Crime of the Caribbean†.Regional organizations such as the Association of Caribbean States, CARICOM and the Organization of American States have all expressed their displeasure at the rapid increase of human trafficking cases in the Caribbean. This growing practice impacts many nations across the world and the Caribbean has recently been drawn into what is being called a â€Å"global panic. † In the Caribbean the group causing the most concern in regards to Human Trafficking is Irregular Migrants – this includes the females transported to other locations (countries or regions) as commercial sex workers.The nature of the purpose can, without scholarly or legislative support, indicate that this is a violation of basic human rights. Caribbean governments are being asked to present an annual report to the US government outlining the steps they have taken and will take to challenge unregulated migration and forced labour, which are indicators o f human trafficking. The countries are ranked according to their compliance with US’ wishes and a country that does not rank well or refuses to present a report are threatened with economic sanctions.Jamaica is among some of the countries that have been negatively ranked. However, the US government believes that Jamaica has the will and potential to improve their third tier status. Most victims of human trafficking may find themselves in situations where they fall prey to both physical and emotional abuse. Oftentimes Caribbean women are lured to the US with false promises of employment and are then sold by trafficking gangs, to the highest bidders all over the US and Europe. Caribbean states are eager to remain in good moral standing on an international platform.Hence, concerns about human trafficking in the Caribbean have increased mainly due to the idea of female prostitution and the urgency to rescue and protect a woman’s sexual purity. Makes you think, doesnâ€℠¢t it? Do they actually care about these issues or do they care by extension of their international image? Human trafficking is generally practised in the Caribbean in an effort to supply a demand for cheap, unskilled labour (irregular immigrants) and for sex workers in the tourist industry (irregular migrants).Human trafficking is common in many regions which are overpopulated and have high unemployment and poverty rates. According to the IOM* Legal Review concerning trafficking in the Caribbean statue laws have been put in place for the prosecution of traffickers, the protection of trafficking victims and the prevention of trafficking activities. Outside of the US and Europe, many other countries do not have the resources to put in place extensive legislation to fight human trafficking. However, there are some laws that can offer help to curb trafficking activities.The Caribbean’s inability to compare favourably with the level of the US and Europe’s fight against hum an trafficking is due to many economic, social, and legal factors. Some such factors are * â€Å"Law enforcement including prosecution and sentencing which may also be as a result of often using outdated criminal codes with inadequate penalties, many of which have not been reformed since the countries gained their independence. † (IOM 2005) Most Caribbean nations do have the desire to eradicate human trafficking but the state of their economies paired with their pre-independence law enforcement techniques serve as a deterrent.Of all the countries that have made an effort to combat human trafficking, Guyana has been the most successful by drafting a bill to Parliament which includes life penalties for trafficking persons, and stiff penalties for other trafficking related activities. This bill covers every eventuality concerning human trafficking. Jamaica has also introduced the Child Care and Protection Act which stipulates a penalty of ten years for trafficking children and p rovides protection to child victims. The provision that covers trafficking states that: 10. (1) No person shall sell or participate in the trafficking of any child†24 This leaves the rest of us at the will of traffickers, don’t you think. Unless the victim is a child, there is simply no law to cover such an eventuality. There is no legislation that criminalizes trafficking in women and children; however elements of the crime are upheld in the criminal code. But considering that some instances of human trafficking is likely to be for sexual purposes, sexual offences law can help to prosecute criminals involved.Most Caribbean countries include in their constitutions a guaranteed freedom from forced labour and slavery. This guarantor dictates a fundamental right but does not include how it is to be implemented. This right is only enforceable against the state and not private individuals or entities, which means there is no provision for redress against actual traffickers. There are clearly inadequate provisions for victims of human trafficking, largely due to the limited resources that are available to implement these services.The â€Å"patchwork† criminal approach can continue to be used as a substitute for a better legislative system until concrete provisions are instituted to cover the eventualities of human trafficking. And even then it is recommended that the weak and inconsistent criminal laws are reformed. INTERNATIONAL LAWS AGAINST HUMAN TRAFFICKING 1. United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime 2. United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children 3.United Nations Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air 4. United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking (UN. GIFT) 5. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) 6. Coordinated Mekong Ministerial Initiative against Trafficking (COMMIT) * Coordinated by China, Laos, Thaila nd, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Vietnam 7. Caribbean Counter-Trafficking Model Legislation 8. Belize – Trafficking in Persons (Prohibition) Act, 2003 9. Guyana – Combatting of Trafficking in Persons Act 2005 Human Trafficking in the Caribbean The law is not effective in dealing with the problem of human trafficking. Discuss (using relevant International and Domestic law). According to the Trafficking in Persons Protocol, Human Trafficking is the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by threatening or using force, or any other form of coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability; or giving or receiving payments or benefits to relieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.Human Trafficking is characterized by 1. The Act (What is done) 2. The Means (How it is done) 3. The Purpose (Why it is done) People may fall victim to Human Trafficking for many purposes. One common purpose is for prostitution. Sexual labour is identified as coerced labour. Other common purposes are for child labour and the sex trade. The Vatican has described Human Trafficking as being worse than slavery and has been describ ed as the â€Å"Silent Crime of the Caribbean†.Regional organizations such as the Association of Caribbean States, CARICOM and the Organization of American States have all expressed their displeasure at the rapid increase of human trafficking cases in the Caribbean. This growing practice impacts many nations across the world and the Caribbean has recently been drawn into what is being called a â€Å"global panic. † In the Caribbean the group causing the most concern in regards to Human Trafficking is Irregular Migrants – this includes the females transported to other locations (countries or regions) as commercial sex workers.The nature of the purpose can, without scholarly or legislative support, indicate that this is a violation of basic human rights. Caribbean governments are being asked to present an annual report to the US government outlining the steps they have taken and will take to challenge unregulated migration and forced labour, which are indicators o f human trafficking. The countries are ranked according to their compliance with US’ wishes and a country that does not rank well or refuses to present a report are threatened with economic sanctions.Jamaica is among some of the countries that have been negatively ranked. However, the US government believes that Jamaica has the will and potential to improve their third tier status. Most victims of human trafficking may find themselves in situations where they fall prey to both physical and emotional abuse. Oftentimes Caribbean women are lured to the US with false promises of employment and are then sold by trafficking gangs, to the highest bidders all over the US and Europe. Caribbean states are eager to remain in good moral standing on an international platform.Hence, concerns about human trafficking in the Caribbean have increased mainly due to the idea of female prostitution and the urgency to rescue and protect a woman’s sexual purity. Makes you think, doesnâ€℠¢t it? Do they actually care about these issues or do they care by extension of their international image? Human trafficking is generally practised in the Caribbean in an effort to supply a demand for cheap, unskilled labour (irregular immigrants) and for sex workers in the tourist industry (irregular migrants).Human trafficking is common in many regions which are overpopulated and have high unemployment and poverty rates. According to the IOM* Legal Review concerning trafficking in the Caribbean statue laws have been put in place for the prosecution of traffickers, the protection of trafficking victims and the prevention of trafficking activities. Outside of the US and Europe, many other countries do not have the resources to put in place extensive legislation to fight human trafficking. However, there are some laws that can offer help to curb trafficking activities.The Caribbean’s inability to compare favourably with the level of the US and Europe’s fight against hum an trafficking is due to many economic, social, and legal factors. Some such factors are * â€Å"Law enforcement including prosecution and sentencing which may also be as a result of often using outdated criminal codes with inadequate penalties, many of which have not been reformed since the countries gained their independence. † (IOM 2005) Most Caribbean nations do have the desire to eradicate human trafficking but the state of their economies paired with their pre-independence law enforcement techniques serve as a deterrent.Of all the countries that have made an effort to combat human trafficking, Guyana has been the most successful by drafting a bill to Parliament which includes life penalties for trafficking persons, and stiff penalties for other trafficking related activities. This bill covers every eventuality concerning human trafficking. Jamaica has also introduced the Child Care and Protection Act which stipulates a penalty of ten years for trafficking children and p rovides protection to child victims. The provision that covers trafficking states that: 10. (1) No person shall sell or participate in the trafficking of any child†24 This leaves the rest of us at the will of traffickers, don’t you think. Unless the victim is a child, there is simply no law to cover such an eventuality. There is no legislation that criminalizes trafficking in women and children; however elements of the crime are upheld in the criminal code. But considering that some instances of human trafficking is likely to be for sexual purposes, sexual offences law can help to prosecute criminals involved.Most Caribbean countries include in their constitutions a guaranteed freedom from forced labour and slavery. This guarantor dictates a fundamental right but does not include how it is to be implemented. This right is only enforceable against the state and not private individuals or entities, which means there is no provision for redress against actual traffickers. There are clearly inadequate provisions for victims of human trafficking, largely due to the limited resources that are available to implement these services.The â€Å"patchwork† criminal approach can continue to be used as a substitute for a better legislative system until concrete provisions are instituted to cover the eventualities of human trafficking. And even then it is recommended that the weak and inconsistent criminal laws are reformed. INTERNATIONAL LAWS AGAINST HUMAN TRAFFICKING 1. United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime 2. United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children 3.United Nations Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air 4. United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking (UN. GIFT) 5. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) 6. Coordinated Mekong Ministerial Initiative against Trafficking (COMMIT) * Coordinated by China, Laos, Thaila nd, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Vietnam 7. Caribbean Counter-Trafficking Model Legislation 8. Belize – Trafficking in Persons (Prohibition) Act, 2003 9. Guyana – Combatting of Trafficking in Persons Act 2005

Nigeria and South Africa

Introduction The literature review was crucial to this dissertation since it was the major part of the dissertation that examined several secondary sources and reinforced the aim which is to critically analyse and investigate the extent to which physical infrastructure has influenced the tourism industry in Nigeria compared to South Africa. This dissertation has an adapted version of Handy’s (1994) Product Lifecycle Model because it shows the development of physical infrastructure in regards to accessibility within Nigeria and South Africa.This dissertation also has Butler’s TALC Model (1980) to demonstrate the development of tourism in Nigeria and South Africa. The dissertation assesses the impacts of the 3 A’s accessibility, Amenities and Ancillary Services by comparing Nigeria to South Africa. The dissertation answers whether physical infrastructure has positively or negatively influenced Nigeria and South Africa’s tourism industries. This dissertation also includes the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index indicators and the Global Competitiveness index indicators in order to compare the infrastructure rankings in Nigeria and South Africa.There are conclusions which evaluate what the researcher found throughout the dissertation. The recommendations stem from what the researcher discovered and discussed in the conclusions within the dissertation. Aim and Objectives Aim To critically analyse and investigate the extent to which physical infrastructure has influenced the tourism industry in Nigeria compared to South Africa. Objectives To scrutinise secondary research which discusses the state of physical infrastructure.To assess the impacts of the 3 A’s in Nigeria in comparisons to South Africa. To find out whether physical infrastructure had a positive or negative influence on both countries tourism industries. To critically analyse competitiveness indicators in relation to other data sources. To make several recommendati ons based on the conclusions in this dissertation. Rationale The main purpose of this dissertation is to answer the question- How has physical infrastructure influenced the tourism industry in Nigeria in comparison to South Africa?There are various reasons to why this dissertation is being written. The first reason is there is a gap in academic literature seeing that there is no existing research that compares how physical infrastructure has influenced the tourism industry in Nigeria and South Africa. This could be due to the fact that there are no qualified researchers who have been focusing on documenting such research since researchers may view Nigeria and South Africa as developing economies and would rather conduct research on other countries like England or United States of America.The second reason is that the researcher would be able to explore the aim in great detail through the usage of secondary research and secondary data. Nigeria and South Africa were chosen because bot h countries have significant roles and influence on the African Continent. Kwintessential (2011) states: â€Å"Along with South Africa, Nigeria is considered a super-power in the African continent. † Tourists frequently visit Nigeria and South Africa. In 2009/ 2010, more than forty-nine million tourists travelled to Africa.The top ten African Countries were Morocco which had nine point twenty-nine million tourists, South Africa had eight point nine million tourists and Nigeria had one point forty-one million tourists (TV3news, 2011). In 2011 Nigeria’s new President Goodluck Jonathan commissioned twenty-five trains and also in 2011 South Africa Transport Minister Sibusiso Ndebele introduced a law called Road Transport Management System (RTMS) which was implemented successfully.Secondary data from 2009, 2010 and 2011 was used because information linked to the Access, Amenities and Ancillary Services was available as major events closely linked to Access, Amenities and An cillary Services occurred in Nigeria and South Africa. Contribution Secondary data would be required since quantitative data, such as statistical figures are of great importance because they are needed in order to effectively support the findings in this dissertation.The 3 A’s Accessibility, Amenities and Ancillary Services According to Buhalis (2000) there are six A’s which are Attractions, Accessibility, Amenities, Available Packages, Activities and Ancillary Services however for the purpose of this research, this dissertation will only focus on three A’s which are Accessibility, Amenities and Ancillary Services as tourists take these three A’s into consideration when travelling aboard. Accessibility is essential as it enables tourists to travel to visit numerous places within Nigeria and South Africa.Hall et al (2006) refers to Butler (1980) and Wolfe (1952) who believe that accessibility is important seeing that they acknowledge that when accessibilit y improves an area would experience a growth in tourist numbers. Amenities are vital since tourists need to stay and sleep in accommodation whilst in Nigeria and South Africa. Bhatia (2006) and Hall (2009) agree that accommodation gives tourists the opportunity to spend some time in a destination.Ancillary Services for instance medical facilities like hospitals are important because tourists may need medical assistance so travel insurance is recommended to cover medical emergencies. Cowie (2011) reveals that The Association of British Insurers (ABI) believe there has been an increase in the number of travel insurance claims from holidaymakers particularly holidaymakers over the age of sixty-five. The 3 A’s Attractions, Available Packages and Activities Table The table below discusses why the researcher would not use the other 3 A’sAttractions, Available Packages and Activities which are also part of Buhalis’s Framework. | | | | | | |Attractions |The researcher w ould not use attractions as the researcher does not intend to discuss the various types of | | |attractions that tourists can visit on holiday when in Nigeria and South Africa, furthermore discussing several| | |attractions would not enable the researcher to answer the aim. | | | | | | |Available Packages |The researcher would not use available packages because the researcher’s dissertation is not about the | | |different types of holiday packages available that can be booked for a tourist going to Nigeria and South | | |Africa, therefore information on holiday packages would not be relevant in this dissertation. | | | | | | |Activities |The researcher would not use activities since the researcher’s dissertation does not involve finding out the | | |range of activities that tourists can partake in whilst in Nigeria and South Africa so information about types | | |of activities would be irrelevant in this dissertation. | Table 1 Chapter 1 Literature Review This lite rature review provides definitions of infrastructure, historical influences on infrastructure, definitions of the tourism industry, an overview of Nigeria and South Africa’s tourism industry. Butler’s TALC Model is used to showcase the development of tourism in Nigeria and South Africa and physical infrastructure in Nigeria and South Africa is discussed. Furthermore a theoretical framework is linked to the aim of the dissertation.In addition the literature review also includes Nigeria’s and South Africa’s political backgrounds, African Union agreements that Nigeria and South Africa have agreed to, the fact that South Africa is part of B. R. I. C. Baldauf (2011) reveals that South Africa joined the club of emerging economies in the world. The club is now known as BRICS which is an acronym for Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa. An overview of infrastructure studies in tourism 1. 1 Defining Infrastructure in the tourism industry Infrastructure ca n be defined as essential elements which people need and can use within a Country, for example accommodation, roads and rail and medical facilities, like clinics and hospitals. Dutt and Ros (2008, p. 01) refer to Ingram & Fay (2005) who discuss: â€Å"In mid-twentieth century, infrastructure was seen as a key determinant of economic development – ‘the commanding heights’ of the economy – and market failures in infrastructure provision were thought to be endemic. † Dutt and Ros (2008, p. 301) also refer to Ingram and Fay (2005) who believe that there are various elements to infrastructure such as telecommunications, airports, roads, piped water, railways, power, ports and sanitation. Dutt and Ros (2008) also cite Hirschman (1958) who agrees that physical infrastructure consists of transportation, power, roads and water. Guttal (2008) agrees with Dutt and Ros (2008) in terms of what infrastructure is however the author adds that parks and shopping ce ntres are part of infrastructure.Guttal (2008) has a negative perspective of infrastructure as Guttal (2008) believes that infrastructure can often have negative impacts which lead to local community’s food and water being damaged or completely destroyed and communities becoming displaced. Mascardo (2008) has a positive view of infrastructure because Mascardo (2008) believes that infrastructure helps to enhance local people’s living conditions. 1. 2 Historical Influences on infrastructure World History (2011) and History (2011) both agree that Nigeria gained Independence from Britain on the 1st of October 1960. About. com (2011) African History (2011) and History Orb. com (2011) both agree that on the 31st of May 1910 South Africa became independent from Britain.South Africa History Online (2011) and Priory World History (2011) agree that in 1652 South Africa had been colonised by the Dutch. Nigeria and South Africa are similar as both countries were British colonies in the past. History (2011) and Wars Of The World (2011) agree that in the Northern part of Nigeria Moslems killed Christians which lead to a civil war and briefly divided the country. This civil war lasted from July 1967 to the 11th January 1970. History (2011) emphasises what happened during the civil war and how the civil war negatively impacted Nigerians by saying that: â€Å"The state lost its oil fields its main source of revenue and without the funds to import food, an estimated one million of its civilians died as a result of severe malnutrition. OnlineNigerian DailyNews (2011) and IRIN humanitarian news and analysis (2011) both agree and recognise that Nigerians have experienced two separate eras of military rule in the country, the first military era was in 1966 to 1970 lead by Gowon and the second military era was lead by Buhari, Babangida and Abacha 1984 to 1999. Robinson (2011) and SouthAfrica. TO (2011) agree that Afrikaner Nationalist came into power in 1948 its main aim was to keep races separated from each other through the implementation racist legislation. Robinson (2011) notes that: â€Å"The implementation of the policy, later referred to as â€Å"separate development,† was made possible by the Population Registration Act of 1950, which put all South Africans into three racial categories: Bantu (black African), white or Coloured (mixed race). Nigeria and South Africa have had corrupt leaders in the past who did not improve their countries physical infrastructure this lead to negative implications on the countries physical infrastructure. In Nigeria military rule had a negative effect on Nigeria as the military leaders caused the physical infrastructure to deteriorate because the leaders did not use the money budgeted for maintenance of the roads to maintain the roads instead the money was used for personal expenses. Online Nigerian News (2011) stated that: â€Å"Years of its rule, brought corruption, injustice, religious and ethn ic intolerance, poverty and misery still abound indicating that military rule largely failed. In South Africa part of the apartheid policies caused separation of facilities, such as people had to use public toilet facilities depending on his or her race. Presently, the Nigerian President Goodluck Jonathan has had positive implications on the country’s physical infrastructure particularly the rail infrastructure as part of the President’s Agenda is to restore all structures that would improve the railways in Nigeria. Azubuike (2012) reveals that Nigeria’s Minister of Transport, Senator Idris Umar believes that the rehabilitation of Akere Bridge in Niger State was part of President Goodluck Jonathan's transformation agenda for rail service in Nigeria.South African President Jacob Zuma has also had positive implications on the country’s physical infrastructure like the airport infrastructure since part of the President’s world cup infrastructure plans was to upgrade the facilities in the airports. Lelliott (2010) states that â€Å"President Jacob Zuma officially opens revamped expanded OR Tambo Airport. † Another part of the plan was to build a new airport called King Shaka International Airport in South Africa which has now been fully built and opened in 2010. Province of Kwazulu-natal (2010) reveals that the South African President Jacob Zuma performed the last part of the World Cup infrastructure by opening Durban’s new international airport King Shaka International Airport.South Africa’s improvements in its airports won awards and South Africa needed to have world-class infrastructure in order to host the world cup in 2010. Ongoing repairs to the railways mean that there has been an increase in the number of trains operating in Nigeria. 1. 3 Definition of the tourism industry The tourism industry can be defined as an industry that consists of different components due to the fact that there are various to urism businesses, for instance accommodation businesses, like hotels are where tourists stay throughout their visit in a destination and food businesses, such as restaurants in which tourists can eat local or international cuisines.Lafferty (2001), Planck (2008), Hall (2008) and Ekwere (2010) all believe that the tourism industry includes accommodation establishments, shops, restaurants, travel agencies and tour operators. However Hall (2008, p. 11) identifies the fact that there are different types of accommodation by saying â€Å"Accommodation operators, include hotels, motels, caravan parks and camping grounds. † Parks (2007) indicates that the tourism industry has a diverse range of products and services which include cruise ships, campsites, car rentals, five star hotels and airlines. Parks (2007) reveals that the tourism industry is closely linked to various types of travellers or tourists, for instance business tourists, leisure tourists or people that are visiting fam ily and friends which is sometimes referred to as (VFR’s). 1. Overview of the tourism industry in Nigeria and South Africa Nigeria’s and South Africa’s Tourism Industry has experienced tourism growth through the global economic crisis. Euromonitior International (2011) Media Club South Africa (2012) and South Africa. info (2011) both agree that South Africa’s Tourism Industry was not severely affected by the global economic crisis as there was an increase in the number of leisure tourists who came to watch sports in 2010 compared to 2009. Media Club South Africa (2012) acknowledges that in the first quarter of 2010 South Africa received close to six million tourists arrivals which was an increase of 17. 1% compared to the same time period in 2009.Media Club South Africa (2012) also acknowledges that the second quarter in 2010 showed a 91. 3% rise in tourists from the Americas in the same time period in 2009 because South Africa hosted the World Cup. Eurom onitor International (2010) Nigerian Tribune (2011) World Bank Report (2010) and Champion Newspaper (2011) also both believe that the global economic crisis did not immensely affect Nigeria’s tourism industry seeing that Nigeria had more inbound tourists come to visit the country in 2009 and also in 2010. World Bank Report (2010) states that â€Å"The number of International tourist arrivals in Nigeria was 1,41,4000 in 2009. † Champion Newspaper (2011) believes that in 2010 Nigeria tourist arrivals increased by 8. 8 percent.South Africa’s tourism industry has been more successful at attracting leisure tourists compared to Nigeria’s tourism industry since South Africa promotes and provides leisure tourists with various types of holidays which range from wine tasting to bungee jumping. South Africa Index (2011, p. 10) indicates that fifty-seven percent of tourists visited South Africa for leisure purposes. It could be said that some States in Nigeria want t o attract more leisure tourists. Emelike (2011) reveals that governors, like Liyel Imoke in Calabar, Nigeria are making attempts to encourage leisure tourists to visit Nigeria by holding an annual carnival festival for thirty-two days in December.It could also be said that South Africa is trying to get more business tourists. South Africa. info (2011) indicates that South Africa is targeting business tourists that tend to spend more money compared to leisure tourists when business tourists become leisure tourists that go on tours after they have gone to their business meetings or when business tourists decide to return to the country just to experience the available range of leisure activities. Whereas in the Nigeria tourism industry, cities like Lagos have already experienced a boom in business tourism with a great rise in business tourists as there are many business opportunities available in Nigeria, for example in the retail and hospitality sectors.Jacobson (2011) believes that there has been a high number of business tourists going to Nigeria every month compared to other African Countries and the increase of business tourists in a city like Lagos has lead to a rise in luxury hotels being built in Lagos to meet the needs of the business tourists who tend to come from European Countries. Jacobson (2011) reveals that the immigration office at Murtala International Airport figures show that sixty-five percent of passengers who come on British Airways flights from London to Lagos between Mondays to Saturdays are in Lagos for business purposes. However some authors believe that Nigeria’s tourism industry is not as developed as it should be when taking into consideration the country’s size, abundance of areas of natural beauty and culture.Encyclopaedia of the Nations (2011) and Emelike (2010) agree that the Nigeria tourism industry is currently operating below its potential. Encyclopaedia of the Nations (2011) reinforces this by saying: â€Å"Tou rism in Nigeria is highly undeveloped, considering the West African nation's available tourist resources: land, climate, vegetation, people and their festivals, abundant art treasures, national monuments, ports, traditional sports, and music. † The World Travel Tourism Council had positive projections for Nigeria and South Africa in terms of how the travel and tourism industries would increase the countries GDP. World Travel Tourism Council (2011) believes that by 2021 Nigeria’s travel and tourism industry would rise by 1. % and South Africa’s industry would rise by 5. 1% in contribution to the GDP. Nigeria and South Africa on the Butler’s (1980) TALC Model The diagram below is based on Butler’s TALC Model which exhibits the development of tourism in Nigeria and South Africa. Figure 1 6 3. 9 1. 4 656,000 0 SOURCE: Butler (1980) Butler’s TALC Model above illustrates that over time the number of tourists travelling to Nigeria and South Africa i ncreased so both countries went from the Exploration Stage to the Involvement Stage in which local people became more involved in the tourism businesses which changed Nigeria’s and South Africa’s environment to the Development Stage.The changes at the Development Stage encouraged foreign tourism business to invest in both countries and this lead to the Consolidation Stage, for example Hilton opened branches in Abuja, Nigeria and Cape Town, South Africa. southafrica. info (2011) revealed that the newly opened Hilton Cape Town Hotel is the third Hilton Hotel in South Africa. The Consolidation Stage for Nigeria and South Africa was positive since there was investment in both countries tourism industries however the Consolidation Stage went into the Decline Stage due to conflicts in Jos, Nigeria but in South Africa the Consolidation Stage went to the Rejuvenation Stage because local tourism businesses are re-investing and making improvements to their businesses. Applying N igeria to Butler’s TALC ModelStage 1: Exploration The Exploration Stage is the stage in which tourists originally started visiting Nigeria. The World Group (2011) indicates that the first international tourists came to Nigeria in 1995 and the total number of international tourists in 1995 was 656,000. Stage 2: Involvement The Involvement Stage is when there was an increase of tourists to Nigeria and local people started businesses within the tourism industry. Tassiopoulos (2009) agrees with William (2009) who refers to Cohen (1972, p. 8) who says that: â€Å"Some local residents will react to the economic opportunities by providing basic facilities for tourists (such as accommodation). † Stage 3: Development The Development Stage is a stage that has caused changes to the physical environment in Nigeria since foreign companies, such as luxury hotels have set up their businesses. Wall et al (2006) and Huybers (2007) believe that there are evident changes to the physica l appearance of the area and local facilities may stop operating if they are unable to compete with new-modern-up-to- date facilities.Stage 4: Consolidation The Consolidation Stage refers to the stage whereby famous businesses now have new branches and franchises to supply the tourists with products and services they want and are use to back in their countries of origin. Hospitality Net (2010) indicates that Best Western opened a new branch called The Best Western Island Beach Hotel in Lagos, Nigeria. Talking Retail (2010) reveals that Spar has entered the Nigerian retail sector by opening a Spar supermarket in a new shopping centre in Lekki-Ajah which is an emerging area of Lagos.Stage 6: Decline The Decline Stage is evident in a city called Jos in Northern Nigeria that was once popular and visited by many tourists. Iyanu (2011) discusses Jos and indicates that many years ago the city was given the slogan ‘The home of Peace and Tourism’ as it could boost of a city tha t was full of tranquillity and had well-known attractions which inbound and outbound tourist visited. However there has been a dramatic decline in the number of tourists to the city throughout 2011due to religious conflicts. Walker (2011) talks about the conflicts in Jos and believes that the conflicts mostly stems from Muslims settlers feeling marginalised by the indigenous Christians.Applying South Africa to Butler’s TALC Model Stage 1: Exploration The Exploration Stage refers to the stage when tourists initially started coming to South Africa. South info (2011) reveals that International tourists began visiting South Africa after Apartheid in 1994 and the total number of International tourists that visited South Africa was 3. 9 million. Stage 2: Involvement The Involvement Stage is when there was a rise in tourists coming to South Africa so the indigenous people got involved in the tourism sector.Dale (2006) and Disgupta (2011) agree that Indigenous people see business op portunities in the tourism industry so they decide to open businesses that offer facilities for the tourists, for instance guest houses and restaurants. Stage 3: Development The Development Stage has occurred as more multi-national companies came into South Africa to establish their accommodation establishments, man-made or purpose-built attractions. Dale (2006) and Devashish (2011) believe that the multi-national companies such as hotels could take over the accommodation sector in a destination because the local hotels cannot compete with them. Stage 4: ConsolidationThe Consolidation Stage relates to well-known businesses setting up to franchise and cater to the continuous inflow of tourists to South Africa. Ivanovic (2009, p. 202) discusses the consolidation stage in South Africa by saying that: â€Å"In this stage the major franchises in food, hotel and retail chains enter the market, such as McDonalds, Hilton and Dolce and Gabbana. † Stage 6: Rejuvenation The Rejuvenatio n Stage is the stage in which local businesses in South Africa have decided to invest in their businesses by spending more money to upgrade and increase the number of attractions offered to tourists. Bruyn (2009, p. 03) talks about Durban Beachfront in Durban, South Africa and states that: â€Å"Durban Beachfront has rejuvenation projects such as the R21. 5 million ($ 3. 2 million) Wilson’s Wharf, uShaka Marine World Theme Park. † Theoretical Framework The diagram below is an adapted version of Handy’s (1994) Product Lifecycle Model that illustrates the different types of transportation in Nigeria and South Africa. Transportation in Nigeria and South Africa 650 450 250 50 40 30 20 0 The adapted model above indicates that the trains in South Africa started operating in 1860 and in Nigeria the trains starting operating in 1902.In South Africa the first international flights disembarked in 1945 and in Nigeria the first international flights flew in 1958. Lawal (20 11) agrees with Nigeria’s The International Civil Aviation Organisation report that reveals 30 million flights arrived in Nigeria. Irwin (2011) believes South Africa’s airport improvements enabled 40 million passengers to come on flights into South Africa. There is a lack of records in regards to how many railway passengers travelled seeing that records were mainly noted later on in the twentieth century. Nigeria’s recorded figures start from 1964 which showed that 11. 2 million passengers travelled by rail, in 1974 4. 3 million, 1978 6. million, in 1984 Nigeria reached its peak in terms of passenger numbers, then went down to 3 million in 1991, 1. 6 million passengers in 2003 but in 2009 and 2010 the number of railway passengers grew again. South Africa’s recorded figures started in 1992 and exhibited that there were 286 million railway passenger, 2007 13. 8 million, then went up to 646 million and declined to 520 million railway passengers in 2010. Phys ical Infrastructure in Nigeria and South Africa 1. 5 Airports Both Akpan (2011) and Ayodele (2011) believe Nigeria’s airports in major cities in Nigeria are in a dreadful condition.Ayodele (2011) reinforces this by explaining how passengers were affected when there was a power cut at Lagos Airport by stating: â€Å"On May 9, the terminal building was filled to the brim with passengers who were unable to access their luggage because the outage had affected the conveyor belt which had already aged. † Eze (2011) and Daily Trust (2011) both agree that Murtala Muhammed Airport in Lagos was built thirty-two years ago, the airport was originally built to accommodate one million passengers however the airport currently reaches twelve million passengers and this has had a negative impact on the facilities in the airport.Eze (2011) discusses displeasure in the state of Nigerian airports but mainly focused on the Murtala Muhammed International Airport (MMIA) Lagos and recognise s the fact that the airport is a gateway into the country and views the facilities as a shame by saying â€Å"The Murtala Muhammed International Airport (MMIA) Lagos, in particular have deteriorated to the extent they have become an embarrassment. † Afrique Avenir (2011) acknowledges that The Managing Director of Skyway Aviation Handling Company Limited, Lagos, Mr. Isaac Orulagbagbe has criticised the infrastructure in Nigerian airports. Afrique Avenir (2011) agrees with Mr Orulagbagbe who believes that the federal government needs to improve the infrastructure in Murtala Mohammed International Airport because the airport is full to its capacity. However Harding (2011) talks about South Africa infrastructure in the airport which showed that the infrastructure was impressive as South Africa won awards based on the county’s airports.South African Government Information (2011) notes a statement from Ms Hlahla, ACSA who agrees with Claude Harding by saying: â€Å"Current airport infrastructure in South Africa has been recognised as being of world class standard. † Harding (2011) and SouthAfrica (2011) both give explanations of the reasons to why Tambo Airport which is also known as Johannesburg International Airport was voted the second most improved. Tambo Airport won since it provides adequate facilities for seventeen million passengers each year, the building was expanded and the airport plays a significant role in the city’s economy. Nkosi (2011) and Skytrax (2011) both discuss Cape Town International Airport winning awards.On one hand Nkosi (2011) explains the factors that contributed to Cape Town International Airport getting an award for the best Airport in Africa by referring to Airports Council  International survey which indicated that Cape Town International Airport had high scores in terms of the level of cleanliness in the washrooms and ease of passengers being about get trolleys and find car parking spaces. On the other hand Skytrax (2011) also explains that Cape Town International Airport got an award for Staff Service by stating: â€Å"Cape Town International Airport wins the Staff Service Excellence Award for Airports in Africa, as passengers recognise the high quality of front-line service delivery. † 1. 6 RoadsBoth Abubakar (2011) and Ezekiel (2011) believe the roads in Nigeria are in an appalling state and this has caused a significant number of car accidents and deaths. BluePrint (2011) refers to The National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) who say: â€Å"There were a total of 20,910 road accidents or crashes in 2010 and the total mortality or deaths caused by these accidents were 6,853. This means that 6, 853 Nigerians lost their lives to accidents, caused by bad roads across the country. † Ezekiel (2011) and Samade (2011) both indicate the factors that lead to the poor state of the roads in Nigeria and agrees with the Minister of Transportation Mrs.Diezani Alison-Madueke that the present conditions of roads in Nigeria are a result of the lack of maintenance culture. Southafricagoodnews (2011) and SustainableTransport&Mobility (2011) agree that 50% of the roads are in a terrible state. Arizona Auto Accident Attorney News (2011) confirms this by saying: â€Å"The 2010 December/January festive season in South Africa resulted in over 1500 deaths as a result of accidents on the road and recent statistics indicate that an average of 36 people die on South Africa roads on an average day. † The Transport Minister took action and made a road safety law in 2011 which helped to decrease the number of deaths due to bad roads. allAfrica. om (2011) Transport Minister Sibusiso Ndebele has commended the road transport industry for their efforts in implementing the Road Transport Management System (RTMS) to reduce road deaths. SustainableTransport&Mobility (2011) also discusses the factors that have contributed to the state of the roads in South Africa and agrees with The South African Road Federation President Mutshutshu  Nxumalo that the current state of roads in South Africa are due to poor management skills and also a poor maintenance culture. 1. 7 Rail Sunday (2011) and ThisDayLive (2011) agree that Nigeria’s railways have been neglected but ThisDayLive (2011) acknowledges the fact that the railways are improving as new trains were acquired stating that: The nation’s comatose rail system appears to be roaring back to life with the recent commissioning of the newly acquired 25 modern locomotive engines belonging to the Nigerian Railway Corporation (NRC) by President Goodluck Jonathan. † Euromonitor International (2011) supports the fact that there are new trains with figures that show there has been an increase in the number of passengers travelling by train in Nigeria seeing that 1. 9 million passengers travelled on the train in 2009 and 2. 1 million passengers travelled by train in 2010. However there are arguments ab out the state of South Africa’s railways. Roberts (2011) states that: â€Å"The best description of the current (201l) state of railway preservation in the country was probably ‘parlous'. †BRICS (2011) reinforces this with figures that illustrate passengers traffic by railway decreased in 2009 to 644 million passengers and further declined in 2010 to 520 million passengers, but Euromonitor International (2011) disagrees with the figures and shows an increase in passengers carried by rail. African Online News (2011) supports Euromonitor International (2011) by stating that â€Å"The biggest growth came from a great rise in the usage of rail services. † Furthermore Railways Africa (2011) reveals that train accidents increased as there were eight train accidents between April 2010 and March 2011. 1. 8 Accommodation Punch (2011) notes why hotels are expensive and agrees with the Managing Director of Thornberry Africa, Mr Church who believes that in Nigeria the hotel rooms are expensive. This is due to the fact that hotels have high operating costs which include generating their own electricity supply. Emelike. 2011) refers to Ajonumah who believes that in Nigeria international hotels, for instance Sheraton Lagos Hotel have 85 percent+ occupancy rate due to the fact that business tourists and expatriates continuously occupy the hotel rooms. Lenhart (2011) discusses costs of staying in hotels and agrees with Mr Anderson international marketing director for Sun International, a South Africa-based hotel company who believes that hotel room prices in cities like Cape Town, South Africa are reducing with better rates and more availability. Mintel (2011) acknowledges that South Africa has different accommodations from guesthouses to five-star hotels. SouthAfrica. nfo (2011) agrees with Mintel (2011) and states: â€Å"These hotels include the Cape Grace, Arabella Sheraton Grand, Table Bay and Mount Nelson hotels in Cape Town; the Grande Roche i n Paarl outside Cape Town; The Plettenberg on the Western Cape Garden Route; and the Grace in Rosebank, Michelangelo, Saxon and Westcliff hotels in Johannesburg. † Africa Point. com Online Travel Agent (2011) recognises that Nigeria also has a wide variety of accommodation ranging from budget to luxury hotels. However Africa Point. com Online Travel Agent (2011) and Maps of World (2011) both agree that most of the luxury hotels with international standards are situated in Lagos and Abuja.Maps of World (2011) reinforces that this by mentioning two well-known luxury hotels in Lagos – Eko Hotels and Suites  and Sofitel Lagos Moorhouse Ikoyi Hotel. 1. 9 Medical Facilities Health of Nations (2011), Travel. State. Gov (2011) and Ngex (2011) all agree that government medical facilities are lacking in terms of modern medical equipment and medications however Ngex (2011) notes doctors and hospitals tend to ask patients for cash before medical treatment is given. Allianz (2011) , Immigration South Africa (2011) and South Africa (2011) also agree that medical facilities in South Africa are great particularly in private hospitals. The nurses and general practitioners train in the top medical schools in South Africa.Connell (2011) and Immigration South Africa (2011) also acknowledge that some international tourists only visit South Africa to receive specific medical treatment to prevent them from waiting in long queues in their country or the medical treatment is less expensive compared to their country of origin. Nigeria and South Africa have agreed to abide by African Union agreements such as the AU Constitutive Act (2002). South Africa being a part of B. R. I. C this is economically beneficial to the country. South Africa (2011) refers to the International Relations and Cooperation Minister Maite Nkoane-Mashabane, who was briefing journalists in Pretoria last Tuesday and said: â€Å"South Africa would both benefit from and contribute to the grouping's am bitious goal of expanding inter-trade amongst BRICS countries to US$400-billion to $500-billion by the year 2015. †It could be said that as a result of reviewing literature the researcher has increased knowledge about what physical infrastructure actually consists of, an insight into how important infrastructure is to a country and the components that make-up the tourism industry. It could also be said that Nigeria’s and South Africa’s political background has affected the countries positively, negatively and has had implications on the countries physical infrastructure. On one hand both countries experienced the happiness of becoming independent from Britain but on the other hand not long after independence Nigeria was ruled by the military leader General Yakubu Gowon and South Africa was ruled by the apartheid leader Pieter Willem Botha. Presently Nigeria and South Africa have elected Democratic Presidents which are Nigerian President Goodluck Jonathan in Niger ia and South African President Jacob Zuma.In addition it could be argued that some of the existing differences between Nigeria and South Africa currently exist as a result of how much colonisation has affected both nations differently. It could be said that the western world has had a stronger influence on South African culture compared to Nigerian culture because South Africa was colonised by two European countries Britain and The Netherlands this is evident through the fact that many South Africans speak Afrikaans which stems from the Dutch language and several cities in South Africa have Dutch names for example Johannesburg and Bloomberg whereas the majority of states and cities in Nigeria have Nigerian names and a high percentage of Nigerians speak at least one Nigerian language.Furthermore another difference is that conflicts in Nigeria stemmed from disagreements between different ethnic groups whereas in South Africa conflict stemmed from an unfair system of racial segregation called apartheid imposed by the whites against blacks. Interestingly both countries share a political similarity, for example Nigeria and South Africa had civilian rule as the democratic presidents who were elected in the1990’s both men had originally been in prison and not long after being released from prison elections took place and the Nigerian President was Olusegun Obasanjo in 1999 and the South African President was Nelson Mandela in 1994. Literature Review Matrix Author |Year |Title |Journal |Relevant Content |Useful references the | | | | | | |author makes | |Buhalis |2000 | |Tourism Management |* Buhalis’s Framework | | |Butler |2009 | |Elsevier |* Butler’s (1980) TALC |Agarwal and Baum | |Butler |2006 |Tourism Area Life Cycle: | |* Handy’s Product Life Cycle |Handy | | | |Conceptual and theoretical| | | | | | |issues | | | | |Butler |1980 | |Canadian Geographer |* Butler’s (1980) TALC Model | | |Connell |2011 |Medical Tourism | |*People are going to South Africa for Cosmetic | | | | | | |Surgery | | |Dutt & Ros |2008 |International Handbook of | |History & Definition of physical Infrastructure |Ingram & Fay Hirschman | | |Development Economics | | | | |Guffery & Almont |2009 |Essentials of Business | |* Secondary Research | | | | |Communication | | | | |Guttal |2008 |IFI’s Tourism Perspectives| |* Definition and negative impacts of Physical | | | | |and Debates | |Infrastructure | | |Hall and Williams |2008 |Tourism and Innovation | |* History of Tourism Industry |Lofgren | |Mascardo |2008 |Building Community | |* Positive impacts of Physical Infrastructure | | | | |Capacity for Tourism | | | | | | |Development | | | | |Parks |2007 |Contemporary Sport | |* Definition of the Tourism Industry | | | | |Management | | | |The impacts of the 3 A’s in Nigeria in comparisons to South Africa |The impacts of the 3 A’s |Nigeria and South Africa | | | | |Accessibility |It is evident that accessibility ha s had a major impact in Nigeria compared to South Africa. Accessibility is | |(Roads) |very poor an indication of this is the fact that the numbers of deaths are increasing in Nigeria every year as a | | |result of car accidents and no action is being taken to reduce accidents which has led to so many people’s | | |deaths. | | | | |Amenities |It is also evident that amenities have had a major impact in Nigeria and South Africa.Amenities for example | |(Hotels) |hotels are diverse in both countries and both African Countries are able to cater to the different needs and | | |wants of business tourists and leisure tourists that visit the two African Nations however there is a lack of | | |awareness in regards to the less expensive accommodations available in Nigeria. | | | | |Ancillary Services |It is very clear that ancillary services have had a greater impact in Nigeria compared to South Africa.Ancillary| |(Hospitals) |Services for instance hospitals are extremely poor as the y are not adequately equipped whereas in South Africa | | |many people use the ancillary services for example South African surgeons perform cosmetic surgeries in South | | |African hospitals on patients from around the world. | The table below assesses the impacts of the 3 A’s accessibility, Amenities and Ancillary Services in Nigeria compared to South Africa. Table 2 Has Physical infrastructure had a positive or negative influence on both countries tourism industries? AirportsInterestingly even though airport infrastructure is in a terrible state in Nigeria it has not had a negative influence on Nigeria’s tourism industry as Nigerian Airports, for example Murtala Muhammed International Airport in Lagos received sixty-five percent of passengers who were business tourists on British Airways Flights (page 12, Jacobson, 2011). Airport infrastructure had a positive influence on South Africa’s tourism industry since its improvements lead to being chosen to hold the world cup which attracted leisure tourists. Roads Road infrastructure had a negative influence on Nigeria’s tourism industry and South Africa’s tourism industry because domestic tourists or people visiting friends and family (VFR’s) have been involved in car accidents which have consequently lead to their deaths.Rail Rail infrastructure had a positive influence on Nigeria’s tourism industry subsequently there has been a rise in people travelling on the trains. Rail infrastructure had a negative influence on South Africa’s tourism industry as a result there has been a decrease in people travelling by trains. Accommodation Hotels had a positive influence on Nigeria’s tourism industry since it brings in money into Nigeria when business tourists pay to stay in Nigerian hotels, for example Eko Hotels and Suites however the prices of hotel rooms has a negative influence because ultimately tourists pay extreme prices to cover the operating costs of the hotels.Hotels had a positive influence on South Africa’s tourism industry because it also brings more capital into South Africa as leisure tourists and business tourists can also pay to stay in hotels that have reasonably-priced hotel rooms that meet their needs and budgets, for instance business tourists can go to Table Bay Hotel in Cape Town, South Africa. Medical Facilities The current infrastructure had a negative influence on Nigeria’s tourism industry since people like domestic tourists may go to a hospital and cannot get medication or there is no modern medical equipment available if they needed to have an operation. The current infrastructure had a positive influence on South Africa’s tourism industry because more international tourists come to South Africa for cosmetic surgery (Page 24,Connell,2011).Chapter 2 Methodology 2. 1 Choice of research design Secondary research was chosen instead of primary research because the secondary research methods enabled the aim to be achieved more effectively due to the fact that there was so much relevant secondary research that was available. The researcher could independently get secondary research as soon as possible since secondary sources can be accessed online. Guffery et al (2009, p. 256) states that â€Å"Many writers turn to them first because they are fast,  easy to use and available online. † There was also control since decisions were made in terms of what information was included or excluded. Issue |Inclusion |Exclusion | |The year of publishing – academic materials: |The researcher included Journal articles that were |The researcher did not include any Journals which were | |Academic Journals |published since year 2000 but one of the journal |published forty years ago seeing that it would have been | | |articles was published in 1980 it had to be used |too old and not have the current up-date information that| | |because Butler’s TALC Model (1980) M odel had |the researcher could utilise in the dissertation. | | |essential information that was needed in the | | | |dissertation. | |The year of Publishing – Textbooks |The researcher included textbooks that have |The researcher did not use textbooks that were published | | |published appropriate information that could be |in the 1980’s and 1990’s because there were up-to-date | | |linked to the aim and objectives of the |books available. | | |dissertation, for instance information about the | | | |tourism industry. | |The year of Publishing – News Websites |The researcher included News websites that had |The researcher excluded News websites that had articles | | |articles which were published in the past three |published in 2008 since there was less information about | | |years because there was relevant contemporary |Nigeria’s infrastructure compared to South Africa’s | | |information available on the news websites. infrastruc ture in 2008 so the researcher choose to avoid | | | |having uneven comparisons when discussing Nigeria and | | | |South Africa. | Inclusion/Exclusion Matrix Table Primary research would involve travelling to Nigeria and South Africa, which would have been very time consuming as this dissertation has a specific deadline and sufficient information may not have been collected before the deadline this would negatively affect the dissertation. The researcher choose to use contemporary research since it is up-to-date information.The researcher did not use information published in 2008 because there was less relevant information about Nigeria’s physical infrastructure compared to South Africa’s physical infrastructure in 2008 so the researcher would not have be able to effectively meet the aim or fairly compare Nigeria to South Africa. The secondary research included the usage of relevant academic materials, for example Mintel Reports and the Global Market Information Data base published by Euromonitor International which are market research reports from the academic website Athens. Mintel and Euromonitor International were used to attain essential information like secondary data. For instance statistical data which was found by using keywords like rail passengers and accommodation into the search engines. The other secondary esearch was done by only extracting important information such as applicable quotes, from reading appropriate Nigerian Newspapers, for instance ThisDayLive, Daily Trust, Punch and BluePrint and suitable South African News websites, for example Southafricagoodnews, SouthAfrica and African websites such as Africa Online News and Afrique Avenir. However the researcher is aware that newspapers and websites can be potentially biased. The researcher maintained reliability relevance with newspapers by using newspaper articles that criticised the infrastructure rather than pretending that the infrastructure was perfect. The researcher al so used relevant textbooks and academic journals such as Tourism Management because academic journals are not biased.In addition The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index was utilised in order to obtain statistical data to measure infrastructure in Nigeria and South Africa. The researcher compared figures from 2009 and 2011. Furthermore the researcher also compared The Travel & Tourism Competitive Index indicators with The Global Competitiveness Index indicators in 2009 and 2011. 2. 2 Construction of the method Assessment Schematic |Authors claim |Position of the |Is the Author |Is the Authors claim accepted? | | |Author |biased? | |Ime Akpan (2011) Poor obsolete facilities in airports in Nigeria |Writer |yes |Yes as the claim is based on Nigeria’s Aviation Minister’s | | | | |statement. | |Claude Harding (2011) South Africa has great airports. |Writer |No |Yes since the claim is based on South Africa winning Skytrax 2011 | | | | |World Airport Awards. |Toba Agbo ola (2011) high operating costs in restaurants. |Writer |No |Yes because the claim is based on the statement by the Nigerian | | | | |restaurant Tantalizers. | |BRICS (2011) Less people are travelling by rail in South Africa. | |No |Yes the claim comes from a BRICS report. | |Punch (2011) It is costly to stay in hotels in Nigeria. | |No |Yes the claim is based on The Managing Director of Thornberry | | | | |Africa, Mr.David Church statement who is in the hospitality | | | | |industry high hotel prices caused by high running costs. | |Mintel (2011) South Africa has great a variety of hotels to suit | |No |Yes since the claim is based on an analysis of the accommodation | |different budgets. | | |sector in South Africa. | |Bongani Nkosi (2011) Cape Town International Airport best airport |Writer |No |Yes because the claim is based upon Airports Council  International| |in Africa. | | |survey. | |Afrique Avenir (2011) Nigeria airports are in a terrible state. | |Yes the claim is ba sed upon The Managing Director of Skyway | | | | |Aviation Handling Company Limited statement. | The assessment schematic above was constructed to exhibit what authors have said, state the authors position, establish whether the authors has written in a biased manner and whether the researcher of this dissertation accepts what the authors have claimed. 2. 3 Sample To select the literature, the researcher would use contemporary literature that reveals significant information about Accessibility, Amenities and Ancillary in Nigeria and South Africa. Non-probability sampling methods like snowball sampling would not be used the researcher ould utilise the cluster sampling probability sampling method since it is the most suitable method as the researcher could apply the method seeing that this type of probability sampling method tends to be used when quantitative data is being collected. Furthermore the researcher used figures from The Travel & Tourism Competitive Index that state the ra nkings and different elements of physical infrastructure in Nigeria and South Africa. United Nations World Food Program Office (2011) reveals that Probability sampling is mostly utilised during quantitative data collection methods. The fundamental reason for probability sampling is to split a study into different categories like children and adults when studying population. 2. Procedure Secondary data which is under specific pillars were selected from the Travel & Tourism Competitive Index from the 2009 and 2011 in the World Economic Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report for Nigeria and South Africa because of its relevance to this dissertation seeing that it enabled the researcher to meet the fourth objective as this included quality of the airport infrastructure which comes under 6th pillar: Airport transport infrastructure, quality of roads, quality of rail infrastructure which is under the 7th pillar: Ground transport infrastructure, hotel rooms which comes under the 8th pill ar: Tourism infrastructure and Hospital beds which is under the 4th pillar: Health and hygiene.The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index rankings from the 2009 and 2011were compared with The Global Competitiveness Index rankings in 2009 and 2011. 2. 5 Plan for Data Analysis The secondary data would be used to meet the 4th objective. The analysis includes secondary data from the Travel and Tourism competitive index which would be in a table format seeing that it is an easy format for the reader to understand the data and the findings from the data. The analysis would also evaluate the findings that link back to the literature review, Butler’s (1980) TALC Model and the Theoretical Framework.Chapter 3 Discussion and Analysis This chapter discusses and analyses the findings from the indexes and the literature review. The table below illustrates where Nigeria’s and South Africa’s airports, roads, rail, hotel rooms and hospital beds ranks are positioned out of one hu ndred and thirty-three countries in 2009 and 2011 from The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index and also has the findings about the infrastructure. The higher the ranking the worse the level of the country’s infrastructure. Nigeria and South Africa’s rankings on The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index |Nigeria |South Africa | Travel and Tourism |2009 |2011 |2009 |2011 |Findings from the infrastructure rankings | |Competitiveness Index | | | | | | |Airport Transport Infrastructure | | | | |On one hand the quality of the airport infrastructure rank in Nigeria has | | | | | | |dramatically increased which clearly indicated that the airport infrastructure in| |Quality of air transport | | | | |Nigeria has deteriorated between 2009 and 2011. | |infrastr

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Persuasive Speech about Immigrants in the US Essay

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Business Ethics and Virtue Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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The Sales Force Technology Essay Example for Free

The Sales Force Technology Essay Forbes Firms continue to struggle with the implementation of sales force technology tools and the role they play in sales representative performance. This research expands previous literature in the area of sales force automation (SFA) and customer relationship management (CRM) by looking at the consequences after technology adoption by a sales force. Data were gathered from three sources to include 662 sales representatives, 60 sales managers, and ï ¬ rm archival data. Using structural equation modeling, our ï ¬ ndings indicate that SFA usage has a direct impact on effort, thereby reducing number of hours worked, and CRM usage has a direct positive impact on adaptive selling behaviors. Moreover, experience moderates the relationship between CRM usage and adaptive selling. Discussion, limitations, and directions for future research are also discussed. As competition increases and technology advances, organizations continue to seek ways to adjust to changing business environments. This is especially true in the personal selling context where salespeople are recognized as the boundary spanners and are expected to be relationship managers (Kotler 1984). Today’s salesperson is constrained to do more in less time, and technological advancements have become an integral part of the personal selling and sales management process. Foreseeing this changing environment, Leigh and Tanner (2004) stressed the necessity for sales organizations to focus on technology-related strategies, business processes, and applications, and called on sales researchers to put forth theoretical models and empirical studies investigating these emerging issues. Notably, sales force technology usage has changed the methods of selling. Salespeople are no longer selling just a â€Å"product†; instead, they are providing a valuable â€Å"solution† to customer problems. Anderson and Dubinsky (2004) discussed the concept of consultative selling, where a salesperson acts as an expert and provides customized solutions. This role requires salespeople to develop a technological orientation to access, analyze, and communicate information in order to establish a strong relationship with customers (Hunter and  Adam Rapp (Ph.D., University of Connecticut), Assistant Professor of Marketing, College of Business Administration (Market ing), Kent State University, [emailprotected] Raj Agnihotri (MBA, Oklahoma City University), Ph.D. candidate, College of Business Administration (Marketing), Kent State University, [emailprotected] Lukas P. Forbes (Ph.D., University of Kentucky), Assistant Professor of Marketing, Ford College of Business, Western Kentucky University, [emailprotected] Perreault 2007). Sales technology enables salespeople answering the queries of customers to effectively provide competent solutions. This can lead to strong relationships between a salesperson and a customer. Thus, technology tools are used not only for smoothing the work process but they also have strategic utilizations. To this point, numerous models investigating technology acceptance have been postulated in the literature (Compeau, Higgins, and Huff 1999; Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw 1989; Venkatesh and Davis 2000; Venkatesh et al. 2003). These studies focus mainly on ï ¬ nding and examining the variables inï ¬â€šuencing salespeople’s motivation, or attitudes to adopt technology (Avlonitis and Panagopoulos 2005; Jones, Sundaram, and Chin 2002; Keillor, Barshaw, and Pettijohn 1997; Morgan and Inks 2001; Pullig, Maxham, and Hair 2002; Schillewaert et al. 2005; Speier and Venkatesh 2002). Notably, most existing research has focused on technology adoption with a few notable exceptions. For example, Ahearne et al. (2008) and Hunter and Perreault (2007) investigated the mediating effects of relationship-forging tasks, and Ahearne, Jelinek, and Rapp (2005) proposed moderating effects of training and support on links between different types of sales technology use (adoption) and sales performance. However, there is still a need to investigate the links between technology use and performance (Sundaram et al. 2007). Within this study, we make two extensions to the prior research. First, we shift the focus from technology adoption to technology usage and consequence (Hunter and Perreault 2007; Sundaram et al. 2007). The rationale for this diversion is that the success of technology acceptance resides â€Å"not simply in whether or not salespeople adopt technology, but whether or not adoption (i.e. use) actually improves performance† (Ahearne, Jelinek, and Rapp 2005, p. 380). For this purpose, we ground our arguments in the technology-to-performance  chain (TPC) m odel, which explores the link between technology and an individual’s performance and postulates that â€Å"performance impacts will depend increasingly upon task–technology ï ¬ t rather than utilization† (Goodhue and Thompson 1995, p. 216). Second, this research focuses on the multidimensionality of the technology usage construct. Hunter and Perreault (2006; 2007) made a distinction between sales force automation (SFA) and customer relationship management (CRM) tools and reinvigorated the issue of sales technology and its effectiveness. We extend that distinction. They suggested that SFA and CRM technologies should be considered as two different sales technology tools, and that â€Å"different use of technology have differential effects on various aspects of performance . . . thus, how a sales representative uses technology and on which behavioral tasks (work processes) matters† (Hunter and Perreault 2007, p. 30). Aligning with this logic, we perceive this new research direction as a valuable addition to an already established and rich literature of sales technology. The purpose of this research study, therefore, is to expand research with regard to the different dimensions of technology usage by investigating th eir impact on sales representative’s behavior that inï ¬â€šuences performance. We also investigate the role of salesperson experience within this model. THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENT As mentioned previously, examining the relationship between technology acceptance and salesperson performance has only recently gained mainstream attention; however, studies investigating this link report positive ï ¬ ndings. For example, researchers have documented that the growing use of technology tools inï ¬â€šuences salesperson performance positively (Ahearne, Srinivasan, and Weinstein 2004) by enhancing sales efï ¬ ciency and sales effectiveness (Ahearne, Jelinek, and Rapp 2005). It has been argued that increasing the use of technology encourages salesperson knowledge  attainment, which further improves his or her performance (Ko and Dennis 2004). More recently, Hunter and Perreault (2006) suggest that salespeople’s technology orientation inï ¬â€šuences their internal role performance. In another study, Sundaram et al. (2007) theorize that technology use and technology impact on performance are directly proportional to each other. They provide empirical evidence suggesting that the extent to which salespeople use technology may improve overall sales performance. Bringing new insights into this subject, Hunter and Perreault (2007) propose new behavioral mechanisms that relate to sales representative performance. Speciï ¬ cally, they suggest that through relationship-forging tasks, salespeople are able to exploit different dimensions of technology utilization (i.e., accessing, analyzing, and communicating information), which in turn, affect different facets of sales performance. Our research builds on the logic presented by previous researchers regarding the consideration of different dimensions of technology use and their differential effects on salespeople’s behavior. To provide theoretical grounding, we base our conceptual framework on the TPC model proposed by Goodhue and Thompson (1995). The TPC model emphasizes that in order to see a positive link between technology and performance, â€Å"the technology must be utilized, and the technology must be a good ï ¬ t with the tasks it supports† (Goodhue and Thompson 1995, p. 213, emphasis in original). Notably, tasks are viewed as activities performed by individuals to achieve outputs and technologies are tools that help them to perform these tasks. The use of certain applications of technology depends on the speciï ¬ c characteristics of the assigned task. Within the sales context, salespeople carry out operational (e.g., learning about existing and new products, generating automated report s) as well as strategic (e.g., identifying most important customers, preparing sales presentations based on customers’ speciï ¬ c needs) activities and need different tools to help perform these activities. Moreover, the TPC model highlights the importance of an individual’s characteristics (e.g., training or experience), suggesting their impact on how â€Å"easily and well† one will use the technology tools (Goodhue and Thompson 1995, p. 216). The current research contributes to this idea by suggesting that the effect of technology use on salespeople’s behavior will  depend upon whether they are using the technology for operational purpose (i.e., SFA) or for strategic purpose (i.e., CRM). Also, our framework incorporates salesperson experience to assess the inï ¬â€šuence of individual characteristics. Dimensions of Sales Technology Usage In a broad sense, technology is deï ¬ ned as â€Å"an ability to act, a competence to perform, translating materials, energy and information in one set of states into another, more highly valued set of states† (Metcalfe 1995, p. 34). In a sales research domain, sales technology describes information technologies aiding or enabling the sales task performance (Hunter and Perreault 2007). In the past, scholars from different research streams have raised the issue concerning the different dimensions and aspects of technology use and proposed several frameworks that support this concept (Goodhue and Thompson 1995; Orlikowski 1992). Although previous researchers build their arguments on different concepts, in essence, they all agree there are different aspects and dimensions of technology use. Considering the fact that different dimensions of technology use should be employed for different purposes, sales managers must develop and support an environment where salespeople use technology in accordance with the required behavior. For example, salespeople involved in operational activities such as exchanging information with colleagues  and managers, taking or tracking inventory levels, or learning about existing, new, and competitive products will employ different technology tools as compared to situations where they execute strategic activities such as identifying potential customers, identifying the most important customers from the list of current customers, or working on improvement of sales presentation skills. Thus, it will be beneï ¬ cial for sales managers, as well as for salespeople, to understand how employing different technology tools will inï ¬â€šuence performance-enhancing behaviors (Hunter and Perreault 2007). Accordingly, we view the use of SFA and the use of CRM as two dimensions of sales technology based on their level of speciï ¬ city for inï ¬â€šuencing different salespersons’ behaviors. SFA usage, with an operational orientation, includes the utilization of technological to ols supporting the routine sales  functions (Jacobs 2006). CRM usage, with a strategic orientation, includes methods and employing technology tools that help salespeople develop sales strategies (Rigby and Ledingham 2004). Importantly, both the routine sales functions and strategic sales activities that a salesperson engages in can develop, sustain, and strengthen customer relationships. Use of SFA Technology Hunter and Perreault suggest that SFA technology includes â€Å"tools that are intended to make repetitive (administrative) tasks more efï ¬ cient† (2007, p. 17). Highlighting its potential beneï ¬ ts, previous research views SFA use as a competitive equivalence (Morgan and Inks 2001) and suggests that it enhances the â€Å"precision† of salespeople’s activities (Honeycutt et al. 2005) by providing fast and reliable information ï ¬â€šow among customers, salespeople, and ï ¬ rms (Speier and Venkatesh 2002). Sales managers and salespeople alike identify SFA as a tool to enhance efï ¬ ciency (Erffmeyer and Johnson 2001) and to improve productivity (Engle and Barnes 2000; Pullig, Maxham, and Hair 2002). SFA tools assist with routine tasks, allow salespeople to focus on re lationship-oriented activities, and free up time for more customer-centric tasks (Cotteleer, Inderrieden, and Lee 2006). To attain the advantages of SFA, salespeople need to understand the speciï ¬ c purpose of using SFA. Keeping this in mind, we adapt the Rivers and Dart’s conceptualization of SFA that describes it as transforming â€Å"manual sales activities to electronic processes through the use of various combinations of hardware and software applications† (1999, p. 59). We view SFA as a tool that converts repetitive and routine manual processes to automated processes, and assists salespeople trying to operate in an efï ¬ cient and timely manner. Examples of SFA tools could include programs such as quarterly automated sales reports and calendaring tools. The domain for SFA applications includes the attainment and storage of information. However, the information being utilized,  analyzed, and obtained with the help of SFA tools is unlike that from CRM tools. Use of CRM Technology Unlike the routine purpose of SFA applications, CRM technology usage focuses on relationship and st rategy building (Rigby, Reichheld, and Schefter 2002). Day views CRM as â€Å"a cross-functional process for achieving a continuing dialogue with customers† (2001, p. 1). CRM is also described as a â€Å"business strategy that includes information technology  to provide an enterprise with a comprehensive, reliable, and integrated view of its customer base† (Zikmund, McLeod, and Gilbert 2003, p. 3). In essence, salespeople use CRM technology tools for developing and managing customer relationships (Yin, Anderson, and Swaminathan 2004). This characterization is aligned with the analysis aspect of sales technology use suggested by Hunter and Perreault (2007). They deï ¬ ned it as the degree to which salespeople depend on technology â€Å"to study and synthesize data and understand the implications of data relevant to the demands of their sales jobs† (Hunter and Perreault 2007, p. 21). Outlining the functionality of sales technology, Widmier, Jackson, and McCabe (2002) postulate different sales functions (e.g., presentations, informing, communications, sales reporting) that can be supported by sales technology. Importantly, these functions of sales technology can be separated on the basis of whether their strategic orientation is â€Å"customer† centric or â€Å"back-ofï ¬ ce† centric (Geiger and Turley 2006). We characterize the use of CRM as utilizing customer-centric technology tools that help salespeople formulate strategies to achieve effectiveness in their selling methods. Therefore, the optimal utilization of CRM tools will depend on how well salespeople assimilate the information obtained through data patterns in their job-speciï ¬ c behaviors. We believe that the use of CRM technology tools not only accelerates the regular sales operation, but also aids salespeople in developing and managing long-term customer relationships. CONCEPTUAL MODEL DEVELOPMENT In light of the above-mentioned arguments, we propose a model (Figure 1) examining the effects of SFA and CRM on salespeople’s behaviors after technology adoption and how these behaviors can inï ¬â€šuence s alesperson performance. Effort A salesperson’s effort, in general, can be characterized as â€Å"persistence—in terms of the length of time devoted to work and continuing to try in the face of failure† (Sujan, Weitz, and Kumar 1994, p. 40), and it can be assessed via a litany  of measures. Speciï ¬ cally, â€Å"the duration of time spent working and the intensity of work activities† are viewed as components of effort (Brown and Peterson 1994, p. 71); other research studies measure effort by the number of hours invested by salespeople to accomplish their sales goals or the number of sales calls made (e.g., Rapp et al. 2006). Past scholars have conceptualized that the utilization of technology tools improves salesperson efï ¬ ciency (Keillor, Barshaw, and Pettijohn 1997; Pullig, Maxham, and Hair 2002) and that technology assists salespeople in formulating a professional sales encounter (Marshall, Moncrief, and Lassk 1999). Salespeople can maintain direct contact, even with re mote customers, through e-mails and cell phones, thus saving travel hours. They can receive and manage orders from customers in an easy, timely fashion. Various SFA applications (e.g., calendaring; routing tables) inject activeness in salespeople’s typical sales routines and reduce downtime. Salespeople, in today’s competitive environment, face a great deal of data that include information about distributors, dealers, retailers, and ultimately, the end customer. In addition to this, salespeople need to keep track of competitor’s activities as well as product market situations. Notably, SFA  tools provide answers to salespeople in such complex data utilization and management scenarios. Different application tools, spreadsheets, Web browsers, inventory management software, and other database software enable salespeople to manage the records of products, competitors, and customers in timely manner. Hence, salespeople using SFA tools will be more organized and able to complete their schedules on time (Ahearne, Jelinek, and Rapp 2005). One key representation of salespeople’s efforts to realize their job objectives is the activity through which they complete their tasks (Brown and Peterson 1994). The use of SFA reduces â€Å"the amount of time spent on such activities as managing contacts, scheduling sales calls, developing sales plans, and planning sales routes† (Widmier, Jackson, and McCabe 2002, p. 190). Also, salespeople using SFA tools can cut down work hours doing paperwork and other reporting-related tasks (Colombo 1994; Parathasarathy and Sohi 1997). Importantly, these administrative tasks (e.g., sales reporting) are non-customer-centric activities (Geiger and Turley 2006);  however, salespeople spend many hours completing them. Thus, reductions in such activities, with the help of SFA, will provide salespeople with an opportunity to reduce their working ho urs. Formally stated,  Hypothesis 1: Relative to salespeople reporting lower use of SFA, salespeople reporting higher use of SFA will report fewer hours of work. Underlining the importance of CRM usage, Ahearne, Jelinek, and Rapp (2005) argued that such technology tools aid salespeople by managing information about a larger number of customers. Salespeople equipped with such valuable information are able to relate to customers without as much difï ¬ culty and can be more responsive to critical issues, thereby shortening the duration of each sales encounter. They will also complete tasks with less effort (Ahearne, Jelinek, and Rapp 2005). Mostly, CRM tools make customers’ cross-referencing possible among different departments within an organization that can generate more sales potential and reduce efforts by evading multiple attempts on the same prospective clients (Widmier, Jackson, and McCabe 2002). Moreover, the use of CRM tools will ease the processes of presale planning activities and improve the accuracy of sales forecasts, speeding up the overall sales process (Hunter and Perreault 2006). Parallel to this thought, it is pragmatic to think that salespeople using CRM tools will not ï ¬ nd examining customer data to be an overly complex and time-consuming process. Moreover, they can promptly focus on vital information, which, in turn, enables them to develop winning strategies in shorter time. We believe that salespeople equipped with CRM technology will be able to conserve their efforts by speeding the process of strategy development. CRM use will help salespeople conï ¬ gure product offerings per customer stipulations without showing extra efforts (Widmier, Jackson, and McCabe 2002). Under these circumstances, salespeople will be able to decrease their efforts by investing less time in the formulation of customer relationship strategies, reducing backorders, and lessening the number of calls required to ï ¬ nalize a sale (Columbo 1994; Thetgyi 2000). Based on this, we hypothesize: Hypothesis 2: Relative to salespeople reporting lower use of CRM, salespeople reporting higher use of CRM will report fewer hours of work. Adaptive Selling Adaptive selling is  deï ¬ ned as â€Å"engaging in planning to determine the suitability of sales behaviors and activities that will be undertaken, the capacity to engage in a wide range of selling behaviors and activities, and the alteration of sales behaviors and activities in keeping with situational considerations† (Sujan, Weitz, and Kumar 1994, p. 40). In more ge neral terms, adaptive selling can be deï ¬ ned as an approach to personal selling in which selling behaviors are altered during the sales interaction or across customer interactions, based on information about a customer and nature of the selling situation. Acquisition, analysis, and use of customer information are particularly important for salespeople in demonstrating adaptive selling behaviors (Weitz, Sujan, and Sujan 1986). Moreover, if salespeople have precise customer information, they will be more capable of practicing such behaviors (Hunter and Perreault 2006). CRM tools can also aid salespeople in tracking customer purchase patterns and enabling them to recognize potentially viable customers. Salespeople, with the help of CRM technology, can obtain critical customer information to successfully plan an effective sales encounter (Ahearne et al. 2008). CRM tools will be useful for keeping salespeople informed as well as for developing, implementing, or revising sales planning. Such customer database systems provide opportunities to meticulously research customers and design their sales presentations according to particular customer needs and wants (Marshall, Moncrief, and Lassk 1999). Equipped with sound customer information, salespeople will better anticipate customer responses, prepare appropriate ways to meet customer needs, and overcome customer objections. We propose that CRM tools provide access to customer information that enables salespeople to improve or enhance their adaptive selling skills. Based on this argument, we hypothesize: Hypothesis 3: Salespeople’s use of the CRM technology will be positively related with their adaptive selling behaviors. Experience as a Moderator Salesperson’s experience has been deï ¬ ned as a composite of three different areas: the employee’s general sales experience, the amount of time spent working with their current company, and the time spent in their territory (Rapp et al. 2006). Previous studies document the positive relationship of experience with different individual outcomes. For example,  individual’s performance adaptability has been associated positively with greater amounts of rel evant work experience (Pulakos et al. 2000). It has been argued that individuals seeking knowledge usually carry dissimilar wants and expectations (Markus 2001). This idea is especially applicable in a personal selling context, where no single formula or approach can guarantee success of every salesperson. Salespeople with different breadth and depth of experience will have different abilities and expectations. Within this research study, we suggest that less-experienced salespeople, even if they use sales technology tools (i.e., SFA and CRM), will be less likely to exploit such tools in a better way, relative to more experienced salespeople. Importantly, our research differs from the previous work of Ko and Dennis (2004) in that we examine different dimensions of technology use as well as behavioral outcomes of the technology/experience interaction rather than outcome-based performance. Thus, our hypotheses differ according to our proposed arguments.  Sales researchers agree that the uses of CRM technology tools are essential for making customer alliances; however, individual characteristics can affect this process (Jones, Sundaram, and Ch in 2002). Because CRM is used in crafting customer relationship strategies, salespeople’s experience will play a critical role in the relationship between CRM utilization and adaptive selling behaviors. CRM will provide valuable customer information; however, to be successful in utilizing such information, salespeople need to have a â€Å"deep base of organizational, contextual, and domain knowledge† (Ko and Dennis 2004, p. 313) and be well versed in handling difï ¬ cult objections. Salespeople with relatively less experience will have had less exposure to the capabilities of CRM tools, and a lower level of understanding about adaptive selling. With the lack of knowledge regarding various tasks and selling situations, less-experienced salespeople will be less capable of exploiting the rich data available in a CRM repository. Experienced salespeople are more likely to maintain focus on the task-related  activities, identify and realize the link between CRM tools utilization an d adaptive selling behaviors, and smartly engage in activities relevant to task completion. To sum, we argue that more-experienced salespeople will employ information toward formulating plans in a better way that helps them to practice adaptive selling than those salespeople with less experience. Based on these arguments, we propose that Hypothesis 4: The relationship between use of CRM and adaptive selling will be more positive for employees who report higher levels of experience, as compared to those who report lower levels of experience. In the case of technology use, it has been argued that the inï ¬â€šuence of technology is moderated by contextual variables (Orlikowski 1992). It seems especially true in a situation where technology is being used as a tool to formulate strategies or as a medium to support routine tasks. Experienced salespeople are more likely to have created an optimal schedule (i.e., necessary efforts required to accomplish maximum output), and given the strategic utilization of CRM, they can further cut down their efforts to achieve sales objectives. Consistent with the arguments of Hunter and Perreault (2006), we argue that more-experienced salespeople have learned the necessary skills to execute different activities. We also suggest that moreexperienced salespeople have discovered ways to reduce their levels of effort while maintaining their higher levels of performance, relative to those with less experience. Importantly, for those who have already adopted technology, more-experienced sales representatives will feel the greatest inï ¬â€šuence on their behavioral outcomes. Formally stated, Hypothesis 5: The relationship between use of CRM and effort will be more negative for employees who report higher  levels of experience, as compared to those who report lower levels of experience. Salesperson Performance In a general sense, job performance is an outcome of effort and strategy (Bandura 2002). Sales literature has recognized the signiï ¬ cance of salesperson efforts in different theoretical frameworks of performance (Walk er, Churchill, and Ford 1977) and proposed a signiï ¬ cant positive relationship between effort and adaptive selling behaviors and salesperson’s productivity (Sujan, Weitz, and Sujan 1988). Previous literature enjoys a relatively wide consensus about the critical role of effort and adaptability in achieving high performance objectives. To  this point, numerous researchers have examined the links between performance and adaptive selling and effort (Anglin, Stohlman, and Gentry 1990; Brown and Peterson 1994; Goolsby, Lagace, and Boolrom 1992; Holmes and Srivastava 2002; Predmore and Bonnice 1994; Sujan, Weitz, and Kumar 1994). Within this research study, we revisit these links and offer that, parallel to previous ï ¬ ndings, both salesperson behaviors of adaptive selling and effort will demonstrate unique positive relationships with their performance. Hypothesis 6: Salesperson effort will be positively related with salesperson performance. Hypothesis 7: Salesperson adaptive selling behaviors will be positively related with salesperson performance. RESEARCH METHOD Sample Our sample was drawn from the human health-care segment of a medium-sized pharmaceutical company. Data were collected from three separate sources in the form of salesperson surveys, manager surveys, and archival job performance data from company records. Sales representatives in this ï ¬ rm were responsible for marketing directly to physicians within a speciï ¬ c geographical area. All sales representatives were responsible for a particular portfolio of products and completed training for each product line. In sum, 900 sales representatives of the human health-care division of the company were contacted for this study. Usable survey responses were obtained from 662 (74 percent) of the representatives and from 60 different sales managers. There was an average of 11 sales representatives per manager. Respondents completed and returned a questionnaire mailed directly to them by the researchers. Management’s strong endorsement of questionnaire completion via e-mail and telephone, coupled with two waves of mailings, led to the high  response rate. The sample was 40 percen t male, the average age was 34.9 (standard deviation [SD] = 4.6), and 91 percent reported their ethnicity as Caucasian. Measures Use of SFA SFA usage was assessed by the sales representative using a fouritem scale. The scale asked sales representatives the amount of usage on four speciï ¬ c SFA applications. All four items were representative of tasks that helped salespeople streamline or automate some of the basic processes and functions of the sales tasks. Item responses were  anchored by (1) â€Å"I do not use this technology at all† and (7) â€Å"I use this technology to a great extent.† The scale demonstrated acceptable reliability (ÃŽ ± = 0.72). See the Appendix for a complete list of scale items. Use of CRM Similar to the above, CRM usage was assessed by asking the salesperson four questions regarding his or her use of technologies that helped manage customer relationships. These questions were speciï ¬ c to the software and database applications that the ï ¬ rm had in place. Again, item responses were anchored by (1) â€Å"I do not use this technology at all† and (7) â€Å"I use this technology to a great extent.† The scale demonstrated acceptable rel iability (ÃŽ ± = 0.75). Effort Salesperson effort was measured as a self-report item assessing average number of hours worked per week. Although not an ideal evaluation tool, this approach is similar to other research that has demonstrated that self-report evaluations are often representative of objective measures of evaluations (Sharma, Rich, and Levy 2004). Adaptive Selling Adaptive selling was measured using a shortened four-item scale stemming from the adaptive selling scale originally developed by Spiro and Weitz (1990). Items were adapted slightly to ï ¬ t the speciï ¬ c selling context. This measure was assessed by the sales manager and exhibited strong reliability (ÃŽ ± = 0.90). In this setting, sales managers have frequent contact with their salespeople. By meeting with sales representatives, conducting customer follow-up visits, and participating in ride-alongs, we argue that the sales manager can observe the behavior of the salesperson, in this circumstance, adaptive selling tendencies. Experience Experience was a composite measure consisting of three separate measures of sales experience. Sales representatives were questioned about the length of time they had worked in their territory, for their company, and in a sales ï ¬ eld. These scores were each z-scored and then averaged to form an overall experience index. Salesperson Performance We operationalized salesperson performance as the outcomebased measure of percentage of quota. Percentage of quota achieved is deï ¬ ned as the total sales brought to a close by a salesperson relative to the sales organization’s sales targets for that individual. Percent of quota, or total sales divided by expected sales target, is a strong measure of sales representative performance because it controls for some potential contaminating factors such as territory size  (Churchill et al. 1985). Sales representatives’ quotas are annually set by a consulting company, in conjunction with corporate sales management, and are based on market information and company records. Quotas are discussed with sales representatives to ensure that the representatives understand the methods used to set their annual quotas. Analytical Strategy We analyzed our data using a covariance-based structural equation modeling package, AMOS 5.0 (Arbuckle 1997). In evaluating this model, we followed the procedures recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988). First, we conducted a conï ¬ rmatory factor analysis (CFA) to examine the adequacy of the measurement component of the proposed model and evaluate discriminant validity. After ensuring an appropriate ï ¬ t, we then derived the full structural model from our hypotheses. To gauge model ï ¬ t, we report the comparative ï ¬ t index (CFI) (Bentler 1990) and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) (Hu and Bentler 1999). The CFI has been identiï ¬ ed as a strong approximation of the population value for a single model, with values ≠¥ 0.90 considered indicative of good ï ¬ t. SRMR is a measure of the standardized difference between the observed and unobserved covariance and predicted covariance, with values ≠¤ 0.08 considered a â€Å"relatively good ï ¬ t for the model,† and values ≠¤ 0.10 considered â€Å"fair† (Hu and Bentler 1999). Based on an exploratory and follow-up CFA, we determined that all items loaded signiï ¬ cantly on their respective factors and no cross-loadings were present. Each indicator exhibited a highly signiï ¬ cant estimate (p 0.001), which suggests high convergent validity (Gerbing and Anderson 1988). Also, discriminant validity was assessed according to the Fornell and Larcker (1981) suggested approach. By examining the amount of variance extracted for each of the latent constructs and comparing this to the squared correlations among the constructs, we found that the shared variance among any two constructs was always less than the average variance explained by the construct, which suggests that discriminant validity has been achieved. Finally, because four of the variables were collected from the same source,  we conducted checks for common method variance, which could inï ¬â€šate any observed correlations between the dependent and independent variables. As suggested by Grifï ¬ th and Lusch (2007), we used a CFA approach to assess Harman’s one-factor test. To do this, one would create a single latent factor for all same-source indicators as an alternative explanation to our results. Based on our analysis, our measurement model ï ¬ t yielded a χ2 of 295.61 (88), p 0.01; CFI = 0.93; SRMR = 0.04. By ï ¬ tting the same-source factor model, our ï ¬ t was signiï ¬ cantly worse with a χ2 of 789.53 (101); p 0.01; CFI = 0.77; SRMR = 0.08. Second, we employed the partial correlation procedure of including a marker variable (i.e., a variable not theoretically related to at least one other variable in the study). By using a measure of sales ethics as the marker variable, we found no signiï ¬ cant relationships to other variables in the model. These analyses indicate that our structural equation analysis is not as susceptible to an inherent common method bias in the responses to the survey. Table 1 provides descriptive statistics and pairwise correlations for this study. As mentioned, model ï ¬ t for the measurement model was good (χ2 = 295.61 (88), p 0.01; CFI = 0.93; SRMR = 0.04). Next, we ï ¬ t a linear effects model that amounts to the hypothesized model depicted in Figure 1 minus the two interactions (i.e., H4 and H5). This model was ï ¬ t in order to test the linear relationships. This model also serves as a baseline model for tests of the interactions. Notably, the linear relationships between experience and both adaptive selling and effort, although not hypothesized, were included in this model so as to serve as a baseline for the hypothesized model. To test the interaction effects, CRM usage and experience were both mean-centered (by virtue of using z-scores) so as to reduce effects of multicollinearity. We then calculated a multiplicative interactive term between the two variables and ï ¬ t a second model that included this product as an antecedent of both effort and adaptive selling. Because the linear effects model is nested in the hypothesized model, a signiï ¬ cant Δχ2 between them indicates that one or both of the interactions are signiï ¬ cant (Cortina, Chen, and Dunlap 2001). To note, we speciï ¬ ed the relationship between the observed scores and their respective latent variables by ï ¬ xing the measurement error terms for each co nstruct at (1 – rxx) times the variance of each scale score. Following procedures advanced by Mathieu, Tannenbaum, and Salas (1992) and supported  by Cortina,  Chen, and Dunlap (2001), the reliability of the interaction term was estimated using the formula presented by Bohrnstedt and Marwell (1978). RESULTS We derived the full structural model from our hypotheses. Structural model ï ¬ t was within acceptable limits (χ2 = 240.21 (95), p 0.01; CFI = 0.95; SRMR = 0.04) (see Table 2). Although the χ2-statistic is signiï ¬ cant, it is not always the best indication of model ï ¬ t (e.g., Bagozzi and Yi 1988), because it has the drawback of being sensitive to sample size and the number of parameters in the model. Notably, our initial ï ¬ ndings show that SFA usage is negatively related to effort (H1: ÃŽ ² = –0.123, p 0.05) and that CRM usage does not have a negative relationship with effort as originally hypothesized (H2: ÃŽ ² = 0.091). As expected, the linear effect of CRM usage to adaptive selling was positive and signiï ¬ cant (H3: ÃŽ ² = 0.122, p 0.05). Finally, although not hypothesized, the linear effect of experience to effort (ÃŽ ² = 0.166, p 0.01) and adaptive selling (ÃŽ ² = 0.106, p 0.05) were both signiï ¬ cant. Next, we tested the hypothesized model. By adding the interaction terms, we found that the model demonstrated an excellent ï ¬ t (χ2 = 233.53 (93), p 0.01; CFI = 0.95; SRMR = 0.04) and was a signiï ¬ cant improvement over the linear effects model (Δχ2 (2) = 6.68, p 0.05). The moderating effect of experience on CRM usage to effort was not present (H5: ÃŽ ² = 0.083); however, the moderating inï ¬â€šuence of experience on the relationship between CRM and adaptive selling was evident (H4: ÃŽ ² = 0.112, p 0.05). The ï ¬ nal portion of our model examined both adaptive selling and effort as predictors of salesperson performance. We found that both effort (H6: ÃŽ ² = 0.115, p 0.05) and adaptive selling (H7: ÃŽ ² = 0.086, p 0.05) had signiï ¬ cant relationships with performance. As a post hoc analysis, we included experience as an additional predictor of performance and found that it exhibited a signiï ¬ cant relationship (ÃŽ ² = 0.107, p 0.05), while not changing the levels of signiï ¬ cance of the other two variables. The proportions of variance of the endogenous variables accounted for were as follows: R ²Effort = 0.047; R ²Adaptive selling = 0.034; and R ²Performance = 0.031. To interpret the nature of the interaction, we plotted it using standard practices (Aiken and West 1991). Speciï ¬ cally, using the information from the moderated regression analysis, we plotted the relationship between  CRM usage that correspond to the average, low (one SD below the mean) and high (one SD above the mean) values of the experience moderator (see Figure 2). Corresponding to our expectations, we ï ¬ nd that CRM usage has a positive linear effect on adaptive selling and that increased levels of experience enhance this relationship as demonstrated by the steeper slope (more positive) for high-experience salespeople.